The archaeological and cultural development of ancient Kazakhstan, focusing on three key periods: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the subsequent early nomadic era.
In this essay the Stone Age section outlines discoveries made during the East Kazakhstan Expedition led by Chernikov. His “rescue excavations,” initiated before the construction of large hydroelectric power stations, revealed over 15,000 Neolithic tools, as well as Paleolithic settlements in the Irtysh and Narym river valleys. Additional expeditions in the Karatau mountains by the Institute of Archaeology (IIAE) brought to light both Lower and Upper Paleolithic sites, particularly near Borykazgan and Tanirkazgan, enriching our understanding of early human habitation in Central Asia.
The Bronze Age, particularly during the 2nd millennium B.C., is presented as a turning point in Kazakhstan’s prehistoric development. Rich in copper and lead, the region saw significant advancements in metallurgy, agriculture, and animal husbandry. This era is most notably represented by the Andronovo culture, a widespread cultural phenomenon that extended from the Urals to the Yenisei and from Omsk to the Aral Sea. Despite some scholarly debate, the Andronovo complex is considered a unifying culture across much of Central Eurasia, interacting with other regional traditions such as the Tazabagyab culture in Khorezm.
Until recently, Stone Age discoveries in Kazakhstan were primarily concentrated in the eastern and southeastern regions. Major contributions in this area came from Chernikov, who directed a large-scale archaeological rescue mission—the East Kazakhstan Expedition. This expedition focused on the Upper Irtysh River and its right tributary, the Narym, uncovering both Paleolithic and Neolithic artifacts. Notably, over 15,000 Neolithic tools were found (Chernikov 1951, 1956, 1957a, 1959; Okladnikov 1966; see also Larichev 1958 for discussion on Okladnikov).
These efforts ended in 1956 when the construction of two major hydroelectric stations flooded much of the surveyed area (Chernikov 1959). A similar situation occurred in Southeast Kazakhstan, where planned dam construction on the Ili River north of Almaty posed a threat to important archaeological sites (Akishev 1956). In 1954, Akishev, leading the Ili expedition, discovered many Neolithic tools dating to the 4th–3rd millennia B.C. (Akishev 1958, 1959b).
From 1957 onward, expeditions by the USSR Institute of Archaeology focused on southwestern Kazakhstan, particularly the Karatau mountain range. These missions uncovered significant Lower and Upper Paleolithic sites on both the eastern and southwestern slopes (Alpysbayev 1959, 1961, 1962). Among the most remarkable finds were the sites of Borykazgan and Tanirkazgan, located near the Arystandy River in the Zhambyl region, just north of Shymkent (Alpysbayev 1962; Okladnikov 1966).
The Bronze Age and Later Periods
Archaeological evidence suggests that the Bronze Age in Kazakhstan, especially during the second half of the 2nd millennium B.C., marked a major cultural and technological turning point. Abundant copper and lead resources helped drive an early industrial and agricultural revolution (Margulan 1960). During this period, society became more complex, with a growing number of people engaged in metalwork, farming, and herding, rather than just hunting and fishing.
The Andronovo culture, a term used to describe a broad set of regional Bronze Age cultures, is widely regarded—despite some academic debate—as a coherent cultural tradition lasting for centuries (Zadneprovsky 1966). While once thought to be restricted to Siberia’s Minusinsk Basin, archaeological discoveries revealed that the culture spread throughout much of Kazakhstan (Margulan 1960).
Its geographical reach stretched from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Yenisei River in the east, and from Omsk in the north to the Aral Sea in the south—well beyond Kazakhstan’s modern borders. In the Khorezm region, the Andronovo culture merged with the related Tazabagyab culture (Margulan 1960, 1966; see map 4). Supporting studies include those on Andronovo material culture (V. Sorokin 1966), ceramics (Komarova 1962), and human remains (Alekseyev 1967).
Nomadic Tribes and the Siberian Collection
The renowned “Siberian Collection of Peter I,” housed in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, offers valuable insight into the richness of ancient burial traditions. These burial mounds, or kurgans, span a wide range of time and geography. While many artifacts date from the 6th to 4th centuries B.C., some are as recent as the 2nd century A.D. (Rudenko 1962a).
Despite considerable scholarly efforts, there remains no unified view on the identities and ethnic origins of the various nomadic tribes. In some cases, ancient authors may have used different names to describe the same—or closely related—groups (Zuyev 1960).
